English

Oil is in the earth's crust in storage, mainly consisting of hydrocarbon mixture which is produced when organic matter transformation processes. [1] This is a raw material in the promotion of reservoir rocks recovered and still pending in oil also known as crude oil. It is the most important commodity in modern industrial societies and is therefore also called "black gold". Just in the years from 2000 to 2007, about 200 [2] to 220 were [3] billion barrels - one barrel equals approximately 159 liters - promoted worldwide. Oil is a fossil fuel and is used to generate electricity and fuel as almost all the traffic and transport. Important oil is also needed in the chemical industry, it is used to produce plastics and other chemical products. Inventories in the earth's crust are finite. How long to cover the crude oil production, demand can still be controversial among experts. The geologist Colin J. Campbell believes that the world is already short in 2010 against a production maximum. Campbell criticized especially the potential of unconventional oil (such as tar sands in Canada) in the previous scenarios, it is clearly overestimated. Campbell is also typical estimates of reserves already developed and yet to be discovered oil fields too optimistic [4]. The World Energy Outlook 2009, IEA) presented a scenario after 2030, only about 75% of the (expected) oil needs from already developed oil fields can be covered if undertaken worldwide no joint political efforts to reduce oil consumption (reference scenario). The decrease in production rate from previously unused fields must be NGL, unconventional oil and crude oil still to be discovered or be compensated for disclosing sources. in 2030 under this scenario, about half of the crude oil requirements from previously undiscovered or unexploited oil fields are [5]. The IEA provides for the supply of developed countries with fossil fuels such as oil by 2030, less threatened by the decline of natural reserves, but rather by the increased competition in the oil market by the emerging Asian economies and high capital costs to develop new oil fields. Add possible crises come in oil-producing countries [6]. The IEA fears "[...] therefore worrying implications for climate change and energy security "[7] should not be dependent on industrialized countries on fossil fuels such as oil significantly reduced. The report predicts a rise in average global temperature by 6 ° C for the reference scenario, which "[...] safely pull a massive climate change and irreparable harm to the planet for themselves (would) "[8].
Petroleum is formed from dead marine organisms such as algae. [9] to be deposited during several hundred thousand to several million years on the seabed. Ruling in that low-oxygen conditions near sea area of the seabed, so this form of sedimentary sequences with a high proportion of biogenic material. The absence of oxygen in the deposition environment, impedes the decomposition of biomass, a sludge is formed. Over millions of years is exposed by this overlap with other sediments high pressures and temperatures. Under these conditions, the water contained in the biomass, long-chain hydrocarbons, called kerogen, is split into short-chain gaseous and liquid hydrocarbon chains, a process that is known in the industry as cracking.

These finely dispersed kerogens are decomposed by pressure and temperature, but not oxidized. You can move within the pores of rocks. This process is called migration. In so-called reservoir rocks to collect the converted hydrocarbons as oil and natural gas. Unit under the oil tight rock, the more its migration to the surface and prevent sideways (petroleum trap) accumulates, it is there, and it created an oil deposit. In the rock pores are in addition to oil and produced water and natural gas. The result, together with oil under very similar conditions and forms of petroleum deposits often called a gas cap.
Drill core sample from a petroleum-bearing sandstone layer.

This successful conversion of kerogens in crude oil and natural gas have to be right several geological factors. Play an important role pressures and temperatures encountered in the course of Katagenese. So that the oil contained in the hydrocarbon chains remain stable, may not be the parent and reservoirs of some 4000 meters exceeded [10] According to current knowledge, a burial depth. This area is also known as the oil window. In greater depths, only natural gas deposits are likely. Optimal conditions for the development of petroleum, in terms of pressure, temperature, and appropriate case structures found in usually on the passive continental shelf edges of continents, of grave breaches and in the vicinity of underground salt domes.

In the course of further diagenesis kerogens can bituminous, ie be viscous and immobile. Such occurrences are for the promotion because of high costs initially uninteresting. A high oil prices might make the processing of heavy oil fractions rewarding.

Sedimentary rocks that contain high amounts of biogenic carbon are referred to as petroleum source rocks. A well-known in Germany for example, highly carbonaceous sediments of the oil shale from the Lias Epsilon, which is pending in the Southern frequently at the surface and in the North Sea area is an important petroleum source rock is.

Near-surface, oil-bearing sandy sediments are referred to as oil sands.
Alternative theories of oil formation suggest the origins of higher hydrocarbons such as crude oil directly in the mantle and lower crust. Exclude the participation of fossils in the formation. These theories are based on present knowledge obsolete. In the Soviet Union such a theory abiogenetische Nikolai Kudryavtsev in the 1950s was popular but not undisputed. Kudryavtsev was pure plankton collections to be unfit for the important natural methane sources (see, mud volcanoes) and large oil and oil sands to explain [11]. According to Glasby [11] only have more recent theories on the biotic formation of hydrocarbons and their mobility within the rocks earlier abiotic assumptions adequately explain.

The formation of the simplest hydrocarbon, methane, in the context of the carbonate-silicate cycle since the discovery of significant methane hydrate on the sea floor is no longer in the 1970 dispute. In the West, Thomas was known gold with theories on the abiotic origin of natural gas. Gold's theories led to some exploration drilling, although no petroleum, but evidence of biogenic matter and bacterial activity in the previously held to be impossible depths showed [11].

Russia's special path similar to the theories of Trofim Lysenko in genetics, was represented only by a few researchers [12]. The known oil discoveries are all due to fossil biotic raw material. Abiotic formation theories are considered scientifically exotic and were sometimes referred to as pseudo-scientific.

2009 was a laboratory at the Carnegie Institution (USA) created simulated study, the possible formation of ethane, propane and butane, as well as molecular hydrogen and graphite under conditions prevailing in the mantle [13], which was previously excluded as thermodynamically. A statement of the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm should, according to the knowledge gained in this respect, the future oil prospecting are much easier. Even the future production of oil in the Kingdom of Sweden is seen as possible

Basis for oil exploration is accurate maps. In certain areas (eg Iran), one can already detect bearing formations in the earth's surface using aerial mapping. In areas with a powerful cover of the deeper layers by young formations or in the offshore area that is sufficient, of course not, and can be determined from aerial photos alone are no specific rock types or their age. This and the point-wise review of the aerial photo interpretation of the geologist must always go to the area and even there, so many carry "clues" as possible. Interesting are the locations at which advocates underlying oil deposits typical rock to the surface. There are small pieces of rock cut off and determined with a magnifying glass.

The search for oil and gas reserves is known as geophysical prospecting. In Physical Prospecting is the application of physical laws to the exploration of the upper part of the earth's crust. The reliable detection of hidden underground structures in which oil and (or) may have accumulated natural gas, has become in recent decades the most important prerequisite of a successful search for hydrocarbons (collective term for oil and natural gas). In the early days of oil production it was dependent on the surface for signs that would point to occurrence of petroleum. This means that after shallow deposits lying constantly in small amounts from petroleum. One example is the 15th since the Known for centuries, but now dried up St.-Quirin-source in Bad Wiessee am Tegernsee, from the leaked oil for centuries, which occurred mostly as a remedy. The search for deep oil reserves were used to perform a thorough analysis of the geology of an area offers. In the series were then drilled exploration wells in selected locations, of which 10-15% were find.

At the beginning of the exploration is the discovery of sedimentary basins. This is frequently done by gravimetric and geomagnetic measurements. The next step, the seismic reflection is used. It will be produced at the surface acoustic waves reflected from the different soil layers. Depending on the use on land or water, different methods are used. Sources of seismic waves on land, explosives, weights, or seismic vibrators. On the surface geophones are used as sensors to record the waves. In the marine seismic airguns with the seismic waves are generated. The recording of the waves made with hydrophones, which are either laid on the seabed or towed behind a ship on the sea surface in tow. The travel times and characteristics of the reflected signals can be calculated slice profile. In the early phase of prospecting 2D measurements are made, the results obtained in layers along profiles crossing of the measurement lines. This can be inexpensively explore larger areas. Based on the seismic data is now also the first exploratory wells in progress. The next step will be carried out in selected areas of 3D seismic measurements. Here, the points to generate and measure seismic waves are designed to yield a three-dimensional image of the rock layers. In combination with wireline data now, a quantitative model of petroleum and natural gas reserves and a plan for additional drilling and the promotion will be created.

The large-scale exploitation of oil deposits began in the 19th Century. We already knew that when drilling for salt water and sometimes oil seeps into the holes. The first oil production in mining was in 1854 in Bóbrka Krosno (Poland). The first wells in Germany in March 1856 in Dithmarschen by Ludwig Meyn and 1858 at Wietze in Lower Saxony (north of Hanover) performed. At a depth of 50 m was funded from 1910 to 2000 rigs about 80% of German oil demand. In Wietze is now the German Oil Museum.

World famous, the drilling for oil, the Edwin L. Drake, 27 August 1859 on Oil Creek in Titusville, Pennsylvania conducted. Drake drilled on behalf of the American industrialist George H. Bissell and came in only 21 meters deep on the first major oil deposit.

In Saudi Arabia, the "black gold" first near the city of Dammam, on 4 March 1938 after a series of unsuccessful exploration of the U.S. company Standard Oil of California discovered.

In general, the promotion of conventional crude oil is now in the following phases:

* In the first phase (primary oil recovery) is funded by the oil pressure of the natural gas trapped (eruptive promotion) or by "pumping" to the surface.
* In the second phase (secondary oil recovery) are injected water or gas into the reservoir (water flooding and gas injection) and thus promote additional oil from the deposit.
* In a third stage (tertiary oil recovery) are complex substances such as steam, polymers, chemicals, microbes or CO2 is injected, that the usage rate is increased again.
O i l c o m .d e - d a s O e l p p
Depending on the repetition can be promoted and in the first phase, 10-30% of the available oil in the second phase, further 10-30%, so total is usually 20-60% of the available oil. Given the high prices and global market dynamics is expected that the tertiary recovery will intensify greatly even with "old" deposits.

Particular difficulties, oil production from fields that are under water ("off-shore production). This need to develop the deposit on the stream bottom, or standing about floating drilling rigs (rigs) should be established, funded from which drilled and later (production platforms) can be. Here, the directional drilling is advantageous because it can be inferred from a drilling platform, a larger area.

the oil deposit is located near the surface, so the oil can be recovered in mining, for example: Athabasca oil sands, Alberta.

From deeper reservoirs crude oil is by probes that are inserted through holes up to the disposal site.

After completion of the drilling may also be a pure production platform will be used, for example: Thistle Alpha.
In December 2009, the public has been known to occur in petroleum and natural gas each year millions of tons of radioactively contaminated residues, whose disposal is missing most of the evidence. [15] In the context of the promotion to the surface pumped sludge and waste water containing NORM materials ( Naturally occurring radioactive material), including the highly toxic and extremely long-lived radium 226 and polonium 210th The specific activity of the waste is from 0.1 to 15,000 becquerels (Bq) per gram in Germany, where about 1,000 to 2,000 tons of dry matter occur in the year, the material according to the Radiation Protection Ordinance of 2001 in need of monitoring possible at the Bq per gram and should separate disposal. The implementation of this regulation was left to the responsibility of the industry, so that the waste was finally disposed of for decades careless and improper. There are documented cases in which waste with an average of 40 Bq / g stored without any marking on a premises should be identified and were not particularly for the transport [16].

In countries with larger amounts of subsidized oil or gas well create more waste than in Germany, but in any country, an independent, continuous and complete recording and monitoring of the contaminated residue exists in the oil and gas production. The industry is different with the material: In Kazakhstan, vast tracts of land contaminated by such waste in the UK, the radioactive residues are fed into the North Sea [15] [16] In the United States there are in almost every state because of radioactive contamination. from the increasing oil production problems. Martha, a community in Kentucky, Ashland Inc., the company has thousands of contaminated feed pipes to farmers, nurseries and schools sold, without being informed of the contamination. Were measured up to 1,100 micro-roentgen per hour, so that the elementary school and some homes being evacuated immediately after the discovery of the radiation had

For 2004, the world's reserves were confirmed according to sources at 1260 billion barrels (171.7 billion tonnes of oil Dorado in 2004 by ExxonMobil) and calculated at 1.148 trillion barrels (156.6 billion tonnes according to BP Statistical Review 2004). The journal Science in 2004 ended even more reserves from a total of three billion barrels. The reserves are located and can be recovered economically with currently available technology measures in recent years despite the annual flow in each case slightly in 2004 and reached its highest ever stand calculated during the reserves in the Middle East, East Asia and South America decreased due to the exhaustion of storage facilities and insufficient exploration activities, it increased slightly in Africa and Europe.

Today's state of the art, the prospectus surface and consumption of oil reserves still cover for 50 years the world consumption. The term petroleum constant referred to the fact that such predictions of the static range of oil like other commodities are to be updated regularly. In 2003, there were the largest oil reserves in Saudi Arabia (262.7 billion barrels), Iran (130.7 billion barrels) and Iraq (115 billion barrels), followed by the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and Venezuela (see Section reserves for a detailed table).

Critics of these reserve figures, however, indicate that most of the reserves from non-OECD countries are not subject to independent scrutiny (see footnotes of the BP statistical review). Often subject (as in Saudi Arabia) any information on funding of individual data fields and the reserves a state secret. Therefore, these figures imply a distortion critics. Many OPEC countries will also assumed to provide the reserves too optimistic because the allocated production quotas depend reported from the reserve amounts.
Crude oil prices (nominal and real terms) since 1861

Predictions of many experts, the first decade of the 21st Century will rise by reaching the peak oil and global oil production peak, oil prices in the future inevitably have yet to be realized beyond doubt. In fact, the oil price reached in 2008 its nominal and real high of $ 147 per barrel and remained in the subsequent world economic crisis at a relatively high level, it has not been established beyond doubt whether this increase is due to the attainment of peak oil. The reliable determination of peak oil is only possible in retrospect a few years apart. The essential problem is not a decline in production, but a failure to satisfy the rising demand. As a corrective we have is the price as the close Mangsituation has shown with the top price of nearly $ 150 in 2008. One in the past always visible significant increase in supply as a result of significant price increases were not recorded in 2008 for the first time in history despite the exorbitant price jump.

The countries of the European Union are obliged to maintain a 90-day supply as a strategic oil reserve for times of crisis. A large part of German and a smaller proportion of foreign stocks is in the underground cavern systems in the room Zechsteinsalz Wilhelmshaven, where also the most petroleum is imported into Germany. In Austria the responsibility of the oil depot company for this task.
Global oil reserves in billion barrels [18] Region /
↓ adoption organization
the
Industry
↓ database study
Energy Watch
Group ↓
OECD 97 112
Russia and Others 191 154
China 26 27
Southeast Asia 30 22
Latin America 129 53
Middle East 679 362
Africa 105 125
World 1255 854

With a daily consumption of 87 million barrels [19] are calculated at 1255 billion barrels a term note of approximately 40 years, at 854 billion barrels for a period of 27 years. [20] It must, however, in assessing this figure that petroleum shortages to not only end of the (static or dynamic) shared the oil occurs. After all, unlike the oil from a tank can not be taken deposits any amount of oil per day (production rate). Rather, there is a maximum production rate, which is often achieved when the source is exploited to about half. Thereafter, their delivery rate falls (physically related) from. A similar behavior is believed by many experts for the oil production in the world: After reaching a global production peak ("peak oil", see above) decreases the overall delivery rate. Just calculate at this time but still enough oil is available to meet the then current daily consumption, although this compared to today, even growing, but the oil can not be pumped fast enough from the deposits and is therefore not the business community to available. The finite nature of petroleum resources is already having long before the expiry of their reach noticeable. The calculated duration of the oil here is therefore of little economic importance, but more interesting is the time course of the global production peak and the height of the subsequent decline in production

According to Abdallah Dschum ʿ a (CEO of Aramco) in early 2008, in the history of humanity around 1.1 trillion were supported [22] barrels of oil. Most reserves were discovered in the 1960s. From the early 1980s, the annual production (2005) at 30.4 billion barrels (87 million barrels per day consumption in 2008 [19]) - about the capacity of the newly discovered reserves, so since then remove the existing reserves.

It is therefore expected by some experts with a global support maximum between 2010 and 2020. Kenneth Deffeyes, Colin J. Campbell and Jean Laherrere fear that the peak had already been achieved before 2010. One consequence of this support would be a maximum then falling production, so that along with economic growth projected demand would no longer be covered Calculate.

Increasingly, it is critical analysis of the British government [23], from the U.S. Department of Energy [24] and the central analysis service of the U.S. armed forces, U.S. Joint Forces Command [25], which are already looming shortage in the short term scenarios described. The British government is reacting to the obvious fact that oil wealth England back in 1999 with about 8% per year. As a result, England has become an oil exporter in 2006 by the importer. [26].

Abdullah S. Jum 'ah [22] dismisses such fears. [27] He estimated that, of the existing liquid oil deposits for less than 10% have been promoted and (not including conventional reserves) at current consumption rates at least for 100 years of oil for available. [28]

While in the 1970s, private Western oil companies still almost 50 percent of global oil production controlled [29], this percentage decreased in 2008 to less than 15 percent. Experts [29] consider a lack of oil is not established that it was a crisis in access to advanced technology (multi) or, conversely, the lack of security of investment in state-controlled oil-producing countries.

The main sponsors of oil in 2003 were Saudi Arabia (496.8 million tons), Russia (420 million tonnes), United States (349.4 million tons), Mexico (187.8 million tonnes) and Iran (181, 7 million tons), the total world production amounted to 3608.6 million tonnes (see Figure 1 for a detailed table). The oil production in Germany initially covered up to 80% of national demand and had a great historical importance, but it has relatively minor.
Oil is transported over long distances around the world. The transportation of the mines to the consumers is done by sea by oil tankers, mostly over land through pipelines (pipelines).
Oil spills

Approximately 100,000 tonnes per year arrive in tanker accidents, some with disastrous consequences for the environment into the sea. Was known mainly the wreck of the Exxon Valdez off Alaska in 1989. As has been missed, the oil directly after the accident and stopped to suck oil boom, grew the oil spill and contaminated over 2000 km of the coast. The subsequent cleaning carried out measures proved ineffective, and the disastrous environmental consequences, however, broke from a broad public discussion about risks and dangers of maritime oil transport. The accident led to an increase in safety requirements for oil tankers as well as an intensive investigation of possible measures to combat oil accidents.
The share of oil in primary energy consumption is about 40%, which is at the forefront of energy. The single largest energy consumer is the road.
World consumption

The daily consumption is around the world in 2008 about 87 million barrels [19]. USA (20.1 million barrels), China (6 million barrels), Japan (5.5 million barrels) and Germany (2.7 million barrels) in 2003 were the main consumers of oil (see 1 for a detailed table). The world consumption is increasing by 2% per year.

The annual per capita consumption is much higher than developed countries in developing countries. Thus, the consumption in the USA in 2003 at 26.0 barrels per capita in Germany was 11.7, while statistically in China came to 1.7 barrels per inhabitant, per 0.8 in India and in Bangladesh, only 0.2 barrels head were used.

Main exporting countries are Saudi Arabia, Russia and Iran

Germany produced in 2007, 3.3 million tons of crude oil. The proportion of oil extracted from German sources is around 3% of the consumption, the richest source is the regional agent Plate [31]. In the same period, the Federal Republic of imported 106.81 million tons of crude oil [32], (re) but exported only 0.6 million tons.

This was used in 2007 in Germany a total 109.4 million tonnes of crude oil, up to a small, direct by the manufacturer used a fraction of 5% fully worked up in a total of 15 oil refineries [33] were further, which even ten oil pipelines will be supplied. were on the steady inflow of crude oil in 2007, however, it also further 29.1 million tonnes oil-finished products imported from Rotterdam in particular [34].

Of the oil produced finished products in 2007, again 3.8% were directly consumed by the industry as an energy source, 53.7% claimed the whole transport sector such as transport (private vehicles, passenger and freight transport), aviation (kerosene) and inland waterways, 12% took the heating energy for consumers in stock, 4.9% of those public institutions and business enterprises. 1.7% needed agriculture and forestry, 23.9% were finally starting materials in the chemical processing of such fertilizers, herbicides, lubricants to plastics (eg, injection-molded products, rubber products, foam, textile fibers) to paints, varnishes , cosmetics, to food additives, medicines, etc. [34].

The consumption of oil-finished products since the 90's each year by about 1.5% decrease [35], partly due to progressive energy savings (see Energy Conservation Act), partly because of switching to natural gas or alternative energy sources such as biodiesel, solar thermal, wood pellets, biogas and geothermal energy [36].

In value terms, however, imports of petroleum and natural gas to Germany in 2006 alone rose to EUR 67.8 billion, according to preliminary results by more than a quarter (+28.4%) compared with 2005, were in the preliminary peak in 2008 It last 83 billion euros with a repeated increase of +10% over the previous year 2007th Throughout the period 1995 to 2008 the oil and grew Erdagsimporte Federal Statistical Office of 14.44 billion to 82.26 billion € proud, with a share of 4.3% originally, now 10% of all imports.

The most important oil and natural gas supplier for Germany in 2009 was, according to preliminary figures through November with a third (33.2%) of raw material imports with a value of 34.708 billion euros Russia. This was followed by Norway, whose oil and gas supplies in the amount of 14.22 billion euro 14% in value terms imports corresponded to [37]. The third most important supplier country for Germany, the United Kingdom, with deliveries to the value of 10.636 billion euros, accounting for 10% of total German accounting for oil and natural gas imports. In view of the 2014 by 590 to 980 kilo barrels per day decaying flow of North Sea oil [38] should put this place in the years to be transferred to Libya

The first oil refinery was built 1859th Crude oil prices fell significantly and the refineries increased in number. Illuminating oils, particularly petroleum allowed, new light sources.

After the introduction of electric light crude oil was initially not more attractive, but soon after the development of the automobile was the Rockefeller family through a co-founder of Standard Oil Company, the use of petroleum products gasoline as gasoline, instead of the Henry Ford initially planned ethanol.

In the oil refinery the oil is separated into its various components such as light and heavy fuel oil, kerosene and gasoline including split in distillation columns. In further steps can be generated from the oil, the various alkanes and alkenes.

In the chemical industry is the oil an important position. Most chemical products can be constructed from about 300 basic chemicals. These molecular compounds are produced today to about 90% of petroleum and natural gas. These include: ethylene, propylene, 1,3-butadiene, benzene, toluene, o-xylene, p-xylene (these represent the largest share).

From the global flow of oil around 6-7% for the chemical product trees are used, by far the greater part is simply burned in power plants and engines. The importance of these petroleum products is obvious: there is no more oil, they must base chemicals through complicated and costly procedures are made with high energy consumption.

From crude oil, almost any chemical product to be produced. These include paints and coatings, pharmaceuticals, detergents and cleaners, to name a few.

Oil is mainly a mixture of many hydrocarbons. The most representative hydrocarbons are linear or branched alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes) and aromatics. Each oil has a specific locality, depending on the chemical composition that determines the physical properties such as color and viscosity.

Color and consistency varied from thin and transparent to dark black and thick. Oil is due to sulfur compounds contained a distinctive smell that can switch between pleasant and disgusting, repulsive. Color, texture and smell are very much on the geographical origin of the petroleum-dependent. Some oil varieties fluoresce under ultraviolet light due to different formulation substances, such as quinones and polyaromatic.

Unrefined petroleum (crude oil) as a natural product with more than 17,000 components a very complex mixture of organic substances that occur naturally on Earth. [40] In addition to pure hydrocarbons or carbon compounds, the heteroatoms such as nitrogen (amines, porphyrins), sulfur (mercaptans, thioethers) or oxygen (alcohols, quinones) containing part of the oil. In addition there are metals such as iron, copper, vanadium and nickel. The proportion of pure hydrocarbons varies widely. It can range between 97% and 50% for heavy oil and bitumen.

In the petrochemical industry is a distinction between minor varieties with low sulfur content, such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI) and Brent North Sea oil and heavy grades such as Mars and Poseidon.

Low-sulfur crude is called sweet, sulfur-rich acidic.

Petrochemical plants have been due to the dependence of naphtha often built near refineries. The cracker capacity in Germany amounts to approximately 5.8 million tonnes, the European cracker capacity is approximately 26.3 million tons. The ethylene producers and consumers are often linked to ethylene pipelines together to production fluctuations. The production of petrochemical products in Western Europe, Asia and North and South America in 2006 was 55.3 million tons of ethylene, 35.6 million tons of propylene and 27.8 million tonnes of benzene [1]. Sales of petrochemical industry was in Germany in 2007 about 66 billion €.

The most important process in the petrochemical industry is the steam cracking in which ethane, LPG, naphtha, Hydrowax, gas oil or other suitable hydrocarbons at residence times in the millisecond range, usually 200 to 500 ms, and are cracked temperatures between 800 and 850 ° C in the presence of water vapor [ 2]. The gas phase of the steam cracker products include the basic chemical ethylene, propylene, the C 4 fraction (mainly butene, iso-butene and 1,3-butadiene) and isoprene. The liquid phase contains mainly aromatics (benzene, toluene and xylenes) and is also known as pyrolysis gasoline use.

The steam reforming of refinery gases or light naphtha supplies mainly carbon monoxide and hydrogen to produce methanol, ammonia, acetic acid and hydrogenation processes.

From the basic chemicals by various processes a variety of manufactured intermediate and final products.

The most important derivatives are:

* Ethylene:
o Polyethylene - e.g. of Ziegler-Natta process
+ 21% of the total ethylene production in LDPE
+ About 13% LLDPE
+ About 23% HDPE
o Ethanol - by addition of water
o ethylene oxide (EO) - by catalytic oxidation (approximately 11% of ethylene production)
+ - Ethylene glycol by reaction of EO water
# Antifreeze - ethylene glycol containing
# Polyester - by esterification of ethylene glycol with bifunctional acids
+ Polyethylene glycols - by reaction of glycols EO
+ Ethoxylates - by reaction of alcohols EO
+ Monoethanolamine, diethanolamine, triethanolamine by reaction with ammonia
o vinyl acetate - monomer (about 2% of ethylene production)
o 1,2-dichloroethane - by chlorination (about 14% of ethylene production)
+ Trichloroethylene - by chlorination
+ Tetrachloroethylene - also called perchlorethylene, as a cleaner in the "dry cleaning" and used as a degreaser
+ Vinyl chloride - monomer for polyvinyl chloride
# Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - widely used plastic
o α-olefins
+ Poly-α-olefins as a lubricant
+ Co-monomers for polyethylene
+ Fatty alcohols for detergents and cleaning products
* Propylene:
o acrylic acid
+ Acrylic polymers
o allyl chloride -
+ Epichlorohydrin - for epoxy resins
# Epoxides - from bisphenol A epichlorohydrin, and amines
o isopropyl - 2-propanol; solvent
o acrylonitrile - monomer for acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) polymer (about 6% of the total propylene production)
o polypropylene - for example by Ziegler-Natta process (about 57% of the total propylene production)
o propylene oxide (PO) - through oxidation (approximately 12% of the total propylene production)
+ Propylene glycol - reaction of PO and water
+ Glycol - by the reaction of PO and propylene glycol
* Butene - monomers and comonomers
o isobutene - by reaction with methanol and MTBE as a monomer for copolymerization with isoprene
o 1,3-butadiene - elastomers to monomer or co-monomer for the polymerization
+ Rubber - from various chlorinated dienes or dienes
* Benzene:
o ethyl benzene - benzene and ethylene (about 7% of the ethylene production)
+ Styrene - from the dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene; monomer
# Polystyrene - Polymers of styrene
o cumene - isopropylbenzene from benzene and propylene, raw materials for the cumene process (about 7% of the total propylene production)
Phenol + - by oxidation of cumene
Acetone + - by oxidation of cumene
+ Bisphenol A - for the production of epoxy resins
# Epoxy resins
# Polycarbonates - from bisphenol A and phosgene
+ Solvent
o cyclohexane - by hydrogenation
+ Adipic acid - nylon copolymer.
# Nylon - polyamide from adipic acid and diamines
+ Caprolactam - an amide for the production of nylon
# Nylon - by polymerization of caprolactam
o nitrobenzene - by nitration of benzene
+ - Aniline by hydrogenation of nitrobenzene
# Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) - Co-monomer for the production of polyurethanes
* Polyurethane
o dodecylbenzene - a raw material for the manufacture of detergents and cleaning products
+ Detergents - often contain salts of dodecylbenzenesulfonate
o chlorobenzene
* Toluene:
o Benzene
o toluene diisocyanate (TDI) - Co-monomer for the manufacture of polyurethanes
+ Polyurethane
o benzoic acid - by oxidation of toluene
+ Caprolactam
# Nylon
* Xylene
o phthalic anhydride
o dimethyl
+ Polyester
+ Polyethylene
# Polyester

Plant oils (vegetable oils) are made of oil plant oils and fats and oils. Precursors for the production of vegetable oil seeds and fruits in which the oil is present in the form of lipids. Vegetable oils and fats are mainly esters of glycerol with fatty acids, called triglycerides. The demarcation of the vegetable fats is the fluidity at room temperature. In the also plant derived essential oils, it is not vegetable oils. In contrast to vegetable oils that leave the drying on paper, no grease stains.

Vegetable oils are pressing and extracting oil and fruit-derived crops. The production of vegetable oils is described in the article oil mill. Vegetable oils often contain a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids than animal fats and are therefore considered healthier. The vegetable oils are different because of their different composition in a variety of properties. One example is the smoke point, which is specific to the type of oil plants and is a few common species between 130 and 200 ° C.

According to the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, a distinction between non-drying (eg olive oil), semi-drying (eg soy or canola oil) and dried vegetable oils (eg linseed or poppy oil). The term "drying" here refers not evaporation, but the caused by oxidation and polymerization of unsaturated fatty acids solidified (gum up) of the oil.

The quality of vegetable oils is dependent on both the nature of the production of oil as well as the manufacturing of oil-containing fruits and seeds dependent. The production of fruits and seeds is done either in conventional farming or organic, or organic farming.

While in conventional farming chemical pesticides, fertilizers and plant genetic engineering will be used waived in organic agriculture.

For the identification of oils produced from organically grown fruit or seeds, and which no other additives and adjuvants have been added during processing to make use of the manufacturers of various organic seal. Refined oils do not meet these criteria.

In all unrefined oils, the quality of the raw material is critical for taste, odor, color and vitamin content. In refined oils, these properties are reduced regardless of the quality of raw product.

The oil is initially hot-pressed at temperatures above 100 ° C. In the chemical or physical refining, valuable phytonutrients, flavor characteristics and the typical color lost. The refined oil is largely neutral in flavor, use a light color, long lasting and universal.

The raw material is cold pressed, a small heat at the pressure up to about 60 ° C is possible. To increase the durability of these oils are partially attenuated. When the damping is reduced as in the refining desired impurities.

Cold-pressed oils are produced without further heat supply only through pressure or friction in most decentralized oil mills. To the most pressing is a filtration. The oils contain all the ingredients. These have a positive impact on the quality criteria such as taste, odor, color and vitamin content.

Natural oils are natural and are cold pressed without any heat. The oil is only filtered. Neither oil nor raw materials are pre-or post-treatment, such as refining, damping or roasting the seeds. There remain all ingredients received. The significant fruit or Saatgeschmack, odor, intense color characteristic.

The seeds are removed in grain mill from the shell. The cores are then processed to cold-pressed virgin oil on. In a refining process can be omitted. The oil is a pure oil. As with cold-pressed or crude oils remain content, flavor and vitamins. By peeling the unwanted taste disturbance and turbidity reduces the start of the shells.

This list contains the composition table is not listed above other varieties. In parentheses: the used plant part.

* Açaíöl
* Algae Oil
* Apricot kernel oil, apricot kernel oil (apricot kernel - so the almond apricot stone - the apricot or apricot)
* Argan Oil (fruit of the argan tree)
* Avocado oil (flesh of the avocado)
* Babaçuöl
* Cottonseed oil (seeds of the cotton plant)
* Borage oil or borage seed oil (seeds of the borage plant)
* Cashew shell oil
* Cupuaçu butter
* Black caraway oil (seeds of the fruit capsule of the black seed plant)
* Rosehip seed oil (seeds of the rose (especially from Chilean wild dog rose))
* Hazelnut oil (hazelnuts)
* Jatropha (physic nut seeds (Jatropha curcas))
* Jojoba oil - actually a liquid wax (seeds of the Jojoba)
* Coffee beans raw or roasted oil seeds of the coffee tree
* Cocoa butter

* Camellia oil (seeds of camellias)
* Camelina (Seeds of camelina)
* Macadamia oil (macadamia nuts of the)
* Almond oil (almond)
* Mango Butter (Mangifera indica)
* Papaya seed oil
* Pecan nut
* Perilla (Perilla seeds of the plant (shiso, sesame leaf))
* Pistachio oil
* Rice oil
* Castor oil (seeds of the wonder tree)
* Sea buckthorn seed oil (seeds of Sea Buckthorn Berry)
* Sea buckthorn oil (sea buckthorn pulp of the berry)
* Mustard oil (seeds of black mustard)
* Shea Butter (seeds Sheanussbaums)
* Tung oil
* Watermelon seed oil

Vegetable oils found many uses. So among other things as

* Food (eg salad oil, margarine)
* Cosmetic raw material
* Raw material for the chemical industry (oleochemicals)
* Raw material for the manufacture of oil paints and varnishes
* Biogenic lubricant
* Fuel (vegetable oil fuel or, after further processing, biodiesel or hydrogenated vegetable oil)
* Fuel oil burners in plants, plant oil stoves and oil lamps

The decentralized oil mill is a manufacturing facility for the production of vegetable oil. Oil seeds or fruits are processed in this device by pressing on the vegetable oil and press cake by-product. The distributed oil mill is different from the central oil mill mainly due to lower processing capacity (0.5 to 25 tonnes oilseed per day), the processing method (cold pressing of virgin oil) and - associated with it - the lower oil yield in higher residual oil content in cake . Moreover, decentralized oil mills typically work in the agricultural environment.